Written by staff member, Vicky
There are lots of things to view when you visit the DesBrisay Museum in Bridgewater, Nova Scotia. Maps, ship models, photographs, folk art, artifacts - the history of the town reveals itself more and more with each informative display. However, there is one object in particular that the eye is drawn to again and again: an infant's cradle.
The crib is not your average child's bed. It is a Mi'kmaq masterpiece. The wooden base, carved in an English style, is covered in birch bark and elaborately decorated with dyed porcupine quills. It is, in a word, stunning.
But who crafted this beautiful work of art?
That would be Mi'kmaw artist and portrait model Christiane Morris.
Wesgijinuit / Brought to Life
Mali Kristia'n Po'l was born around 1804. The exact place of her birth is unknown, but it is believed to have been either Stewiacke, Nova Scotia, or on an Indian reserve near Ship Harbour, Nova Scotia. She was the daughter of Ambrose Wobblewest Paul, but the name of her mother is unknown. As an infant, she was christened Marie-Christiane Paul, but over time her name took on many Anglicized variations - Marie was often shortened to Mary, and was sometimes (though not always) paired with Christiane, Christianne, Christy-Anne, Christiana, Christine, etc. For the purposes of this blog, she will be referred to as Christiane.
Very little is known about Christiane's early life. At a young age, she married Tma Mulis, also known as Thomas Maurice or Tom Morris. The marriage caused even greater confusion as to Christiane's name. In the Mi'kmaw tradition, her last name would have remained that of her father, Paul. However, in the English tradition, she would have taken her husband's name: Morris. As a result, it is not uncommon to see her surname written as Paul, Morris, Maurice, or some combination in between. Thomas was also Mi'kmaw. His family lived on McNabs Island in Halifax Harbour during the summer months and would move to the eastern shore near Dartmouth in the winter. The couple did not have any children of their own, but they adopted two children - a girl named Charlotte, who was a niece from the Paul side of the family who had been orphaned, and a boy named Joe. Thomas was several years older than Christiane. During most of their marriage, he suffered from very poor health, which meant it was up to Christiane to support the family.
So she did.
Netuisgalatl / Sell for Money
Christiane was nothing if not an industrious woman; she was skilled with her hands, and she knew the traditions of her people well. To provide for her family, she crafted canoes, baskets, and snowshoes, as well as household items, clothing, and decorations adorned with porcupine quills, beads, and embroidery, which were sold at local markets and from her home. It is unknown exactly how much Christiane made from the sale of her pieces, but it is said that she once sold two beaded Mi'kmaq costumes to Indian Commissioner William Chearnley for an impressive $300.
Christiane also entered local fairs in hopes of winning prizes for her work. In 1854, she entered the Provincial Exhibition where she won first prize for her full-sized canoe with paddles, and took second prize for her set of nesting quillwork boxes. At the 1868 Provincial Exhibition, she took two first prizes for best basket and also won best set of nesting quill boxes. Her total winnings from the 1868 Provincial Exhibition were eight dollars. This may not seem like much, but at around this time, a professional carpenter in nearby New Brunswick made an average of $1.62 a day. That means Christiane earned approximately five days' wages in prize money in one day.
Christiane's skills and hard work did not go unnoticed. Her talents made her something of a household name in Halifax and Dartmouth, but her influence did not end there. She made connections across the province with locals and visitors alike. She even made friends with British royals.
Christiane used her skills to make a pair of moccasins decorated with porcupine quills as a gift for Queen Victoria. She is also said to have crafted a porcupine cradle for the Queen, and her young son, Prince Edward, slept in the bed as a child. (The cradle found at the DesBrisay Museum is said to be a near copy of the one she made for the British Royal Family. Unfortunately, if one was gifted to Queen Victoria and her son, it does not appear to have survived the test of time.) The Queen would later repay Christiane for her generosity and kindness.
Piliganig / New Homes Built There
Around 1855, Christiane and her family moved from Dartmouth to Halifax. They built a wigwam on a grassy hill at the head of Chocolate Lake near a stream that emptied into the Northwest Arm. Within a year, the family moved downstream to the far side of Herring Cove Road. Sources differ as to how Christiane came to reside on this land. Some say that the property was owned by the Hostermann brothers - likely John and Charles. The Hostermann family ran a grist mill at Chocolate Lake, and the brothers later operated a nail manufacturer and an iron factory in the area. However, Henry Piers, former curator of the Nova Scotia Museum, states that the land the Morris' moved to in 1856 was a gift from Queen Victoria herself; a thank-you present to Christiane for the gifts she had bestowed upon the Royal Family. However it came to be, the piece of land about a quarter of a mile from the Hostermann mill became Christiane's home. Here, the family lived in a small green cottage.
Christiane had proven herself to be quite the capable woman, but she wasn't done yet. In 1856, after settling into the new cottage, Christiane petitioned Lieutenant Governor General Sir John Gaspard Le Marchant for funds to purchase seed potatoes and a cow for her property. The petition appears to have been successful. By 1857, Christiane had not only a cow and a vegetable garden with potatoes, but also a pig and a small flock of chickens.
On August 21, 1857, another of Christiane's nieces, who she had also cared for like her own child, was getting married to a man from Hants. Christiane hosted the wedding at her cottage. As guests - both Mi'kmaq and European - arrived, the bride and groom greeted them and welcomed them. The event was auspicious enough for details to make the local paper:
The old people, wishing to celebrate the event with all due ceremony in their own way, invited the Rev. Mr. Carmody, of Prospect, to officiate - also several of their own tribe from camps in the vicinity of the city - and sundry of the European population, including, we understand, His Excellency, the Admiral, and others of rank and station. There was a rude cottage on the top of the hillock, with a table furnished with cake and other luxuries - a little below the cottage was a wigwam - across a piece of an old road was a bower, built of young trees and bushes, intended for the marriage ceremony and subsequent amusements. The bride was a neat looking Indian girl, dressed with parti-colored and embroidered under gown, a white gauze-like over robe, pink silk jacket, high peaked cloth cap decorated with feathers, flowers and other ornaments, and gay ribbons in profusion. The bridegroom, Louis Paul, was a fine looking young Indian - calm, solemn and dignified, as if keeping up the ancient rank of his tribe, and maintaining the character of 'nature's gentleman...'. He was dressed in black cloth, his coat blowser shaped, with nothing of the Indian costume except his highly ornamented moccasins.
Halifax Sun, August 21, 1857, pg. 2 via Whitehead, pg. 50/51
Following the ceremony, the reception began. Christiane provided "...lots of wine and cake for the occasion, and she performed the part of patroness for the party in such a style as would have put many of our city dames in the shades" (Halifax Sun, August 21, 1857, pg. 2 via Whitehead, pg. 50/51). Christiane had also hired a flutist and a violinist to play music; both Mi'kmaq and European alike danced and celebrated the marriage long into the evening.
Thanks to her skills, work ethic, ingenuity, and determination, Christiane had a flourishing life in Halifax that, in many ways, transcended racial and societal boundaries.
Napui'gatl / Take Photograph, or Draw
As so often happens, art begets art. As Christiane's popularity grew and her name became more widely known, artistic contemporaries became interested in capturing her talents and her portrait. Photographer Joseph S. Rogers, whose studio was located at 189 Barrington Street, took Christiane's portrait on more than one occasion.
Although traditional Mi'kmaq clothing relied on leather and furs, European colonization introduced new materials like cotton and wool. Sources from the mid-1800s state that everyday Mi'kmaq clothing was often constructed of cotton broadcloth; outfits were modest, but still frequently featured traditional elements like seal-skin caps or moose leather moccasins. However, the finest Mi'kmaq clothes - known as full regalia - were much more elaborate:
The pointed cap was traditional headgear for Mi'kmaq women, although other styles were sometimes worn. Traditional women's dress also included a jacket, usually broadcloth with ribbon trim, and fastened with a brooch. The skirt was a tube of cloth, with shoulder suspenders of braid or tape; ornamental tabs hung below the jacket. Dress also included cloth leggings, dried moose-hide moccasins and a tobacco pouch.
Men's traditional dress included a coat copied from contemporary European military uniforms, featuring a collar, cuffs and beaded epaulets; the coat was tied with a woven belt. Men's dress also included leggings tied to short trousers, plus moccasins and a hat, cap or feather headdress.
- Nova Scotia Archives
In one of Joseph S. Rogers' photographs, Christiane is pictured next to a young man; both are dressed in full Mi'kmaq regalia. It is believed that the young man next to her is her adopted son, Joe.
Another of Joseph S. Rogers' photos shows a different side of Christiane. Here she is pictured in a dress that combines European styles of the day with elements of Mi'kmaq dress.
Photographer W. D. O'Donnell, whose studio was located at 167 Barrington Street, also took Christiane's photograph. He, too, chose to capture her in full regalia and has ensured that a small quillwork box is included.
It wasn't just photographers; painters also took inspiration from Christiane. William Gush, an English portrait painter, is said to have painted two portraits of Christiane on a visit in the summer of 1859. One portrait was later gifted to Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII) on a visit to Halifax in 1860; the other was given to Christiane.
Another artist named Valentine (possibly English painter William Valentine) painted Christiane's portrait, which in turn inspired another artist. Potter/Painter Alice Hagen created her own interpretation of Valentine's portrait on a Jardiniere, or flower pot holder. Alice surrounded the portrait with local flora, such as pitcher plants, and ornamented the bowl with gold.
Usgijega'tuaten / Will Be Covered in a Death Shroud
Christiane lived the rest of her life in her cottage near Chocolate Lake. It is unknown when her husband passed away, or exactly where her adopted children lived the rest of their lives. It is believed that Christiane herself passed away in 1886 at the age of 82 and was buried in a Mi'kmaq cemetery in either Enfield or Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia. She was remembered by those who know her as not only talented, creative, and savvy, but as a "pious woman of excellent character" (Dictionary of Canadian Biography). Today, her memory lives on in the few pieces of her artwork that have stood the test of time, and in her Indigenous brothers and sisters who produce Mi'kmaq art and share their expertise.
Etliatl / Making
Quilling
Prior to European contact, the Mi'kmaq used quillwork for personal ornamentation on their clothing, moccasins, and belts. However, European interest in quillwork prompted a diversification in the use of quills. To increase trade, the Mi'kmaq began to apply quills to other items, such as boxes, baskets, and furniture.
Let it be said: quillwork is not a task for the hurried.
It begins with the collection of materials: birchbark, sweetgrass, and plants used for producing dyes can be more or less easily foraged, but the quills themselves are quite another story. Traditionally, porcupines were hunted, and their quills, numbering upwards of 30,000, were carefully removed. Each quill must then be cleaned and sorted according to size, after which the artist can begin the dying process.
Boiling the quills with different plants produces different coloured effects. The colour red, for example, can be achieved by using the plant Galium tinctorium, also known as Red Bedstraw. When the quills were coloured, rinsed, and dried, then the actual quilling could begin.
For sturdy items like canoes, boxes, and cradles, the quills are mounted to birch bark. To do this, both the quills and the bark are moistened to make them more pliable; an awl is then used to pierce two holes in the bark, and the quill tips are inserted into each hole. This process is repeated to make the desired pattern. When the birch bark dries, it constricts against the quills, and they are fused in place. These birchbark and quill panels are then mounted to wooden frameworks and frequently trimmed with sweetgrass to complete the design.
For the cradle housed at the DesBrisay Museum, Christiane's elegant quillwork was mounted to a wooden frame made by her friend Alexander Strum of Mahone Bay. It features a variety of traditional Mi'kmaq motifs, including the eight-pointed star. Christiane then gifted the ornamented cradle to her dear friend Reuben Rhuland (Alexander's brother-in-law), also of Mahone Bay, around 1868. Reuben kept the cradle for a number of years before giving it to John F. Doering of Bridgewater, Nova Scotia. Around 1908, John contacted the DesBrisay Museum/the Nova Scotia Provincial Museum, inquiring if they would want the cradle for their collection. He initially asked for $75 to purchase the item. It is unclear how much was paid for the artifact, but it resides in the DesBrisay Museum to this day.
Basketry
The Mi'kmaq produced various types of containers from natural materials. Boxes, bowls, and utensils were often made of birchbark, while other vessels were made from woven cattails, sweetgrass, spruce roots, or hemp. However, wood splint basketry became a particularly important industry for the Mi'kmaq following the arrival of Europeans.
Much like quilling, splint baskets are not to be made quickly.
Chopping down a tree is an arduous task to begin with. The Mi'kmaq use a variety of trees in their basket making: maple, cedar, spruce, and ash, just to name a few (black ash is a favourite). Once the selected tree is felled, it will need to be trimmed of branches and stripped of its bark. After it is cleaned, the trunk is typically cut into smaller sections. The traditional method for splitting wood is to pound the trunk of the tree with the back of an axe. This causes the wood to split along its growth lines and separate into thin strips. These narrow wooden strips are now ready for dying, weaving, painting, and decorating (perhaps with quillwork?).
Woven baskets, presumably made by Christiane, can be seen in one of the photographs taken by Joseph S. Rogers. What happened to these specific baskets is anyone's guess, but many examples of historic Mi'kmaq craftsmanship exist to this day.
Constructing a Birchbark Canoe
Canoes were not simply a vessel to sell and trade to Europeans; they were essential to Mi'kmaq life. Hunting, fishing, migration, and general fast travel all heavily relied on the use of river systems, lakes, and other waterways.
Construction starts with a journey into the woods, not to find birch trees, but spruce. The root of spruce trees is used to tie the seams of the canoe together and secure the birchbark panels to the frame. Each canoe needs at least 200 metres of spruce root to make it seaworthy. Once harvested, the roots must be trimmed and boiled. The boiling removes the bark and makes the roots soft and pliable. The roots are then cut lengthwise to make long, thin ropes.
Next comes the frame of the canoe. This is traditionally made of spruce, but other malleable woods, such as cedar, can also be used. Heating and bending the wood for the frame takes hundreds of pounds of pressure and days sitting in the sun before the birchbark is tied on with spruce root. Birchbark is best harvested on muggy summer days. Like the spruce roots, the birch bark is boiled to make it flexible, so it can bend around the ribs of the canoe. The birchbark seams are then sealed with a mixture of spruce gum, hot bear fat, and ash to waterproof the vessel.
There are no photographs, paintings, or drawings of the canoe that won Christiane a prize in 1854; however, it likely would have resembled the one depicted in the above Naval Chronicle engraving from 1804. Traditional Mi'kmaq canoe building is almost a lost art, but people like Todd Labrador / Amalkat Sam'Quawnijtuk (One Who Dances On Water) from the Wildcat Reservation in Queen's County, Nova Scotia, are working hard to keep the tradition alive. Todd conducts seminars at places like the Millbrook Cultural and Heritage Centre and Kejimkujik National Park to demonstrate not only how to construct a birchbark canoe, but also how to find and harvest the materials in the traditional way. He is assisted by his daughter Melissa, who says: "One day I'd love to be known as the first Mi'kmaw woman birchbark canoe builder. Years ago, our women would've did that but there's none today that I know of" (CBC).
The Finishing Lines
In a time when Indigenous heritage was not celebrated or even generally accepted, Christiane used her gifts to not only support herself and her family but also to promote her culture throughout Nova Scotia and the British Empire. From locals to Royals, she made an impact on hundreds of people and demonstrated the skills she and her people possessed. Over the course of many generations, these traditional skills were suppressed by governments and societies that deemed them less than, to the point where they were nearly lost to time. Today, a renewed interest in and reclaiming of Indigenous Heritage is changing that. Mi'kmaq craftsmanship is being celebrated not just in museums and archives, but in global exhibitions and artist residencies, as well as through education and instruction. People like quiller Cheryl Simon, weaver Virick Francis, painter Alan Syliboy, and builder Todd Labrador are keeping their traditional Indigenous arts alive in the modern age. There is little doubt that Christiane's spirit lives on in their hearts and in their hands.
Library Sources
Muiwlanej Kikamaqki -- Honouring Our Ancestors
Niniskamijinaqik : Ancestral Images
The Nova Scotia Historical Quarterly (The Arts of the Micmac of Nova Scotia, vol. 4, no. 2, June 1974)
Additional Sources
About Alan Syliboy, Alan Syliboy
Artist in Residence - Cheryl Simon, Sherbrooke Village
Basket Weaving and Being Welcomed in Mi'kmaki (with Virick Francis), Pier 21
Christianne Morris (c.1804-1886), Halifax Art & Artists
The Cost of Living in Canada in 1870, Snell, J.G., York University
A Discussion of Seated Mi'kmaq Woman Weaving a Basket, Perry Nodelman
Finding Their Roots, Elizabeth McMillan, CBC
Harry Piers Ethology Papers Volume 3, Saint Mary's University
If Looks Could Quill, Sophie Langille
Jardiniere with Portraits of Quin-cha-ke-cha and Christ Ann Morris, and stand, MSVU Art Gallery
John Edward Hosterman, Find a Grave
Lieutenant Governors of the Colony of Nova Scotia 1786-1867, Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia
Making an Ash Pack Basket, Native Hands
Mi'gmaq/Mi'kmaq Online Talking Dictionary
Mi'kmaq Artist to Explore Traditional Burials in New Documentary, Exhibit, CBC, February, 2020
Mi'kmaq Birch Bark Canoe Building with Todd Labrador and his Family, Parks Canada
Mi'kmaq Birch Bark Canoes, Avon River Heritage Centre
Mi'kmaw Community Gatherings, Regalia and Remembrance, Nova Scotia Archives
Mi'kmaq Regalia Repatriated After More Than 100 Years in Australia, CBC, 2023
Mi'kmaq woman making basket, 1800s, Nova Scotia Archives accession no. 1979-147, no. 52
Paul, Mary Christianne, Dictionary of Canadian Biography
Queen Victoria, Franz Xaver Winterhalter, Scottish National Galleries
A Shorthorned Cow, John Vine, The Rectangular Cows of Art UK
Regalia, Millbrook First Nation
Three Mi'kmaq women with child, 1800s, Nova Scotia Archives accession no. 1979-147, no. 59
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