Written by staff member, Vicky
Although the end of World War Two was a time of jubilant celebration, it brought new and complex problems. While some regimes were toppled, others struggled for dominance. Political skirmishes between the major world powers would lead to real battles on the ground and real lives on the line.
The Korean War: How it began
In September of 1945, the Japanese Empire officially surrendered to the Allied powers. While this alone caused numerous ripples throughout history, it was especially significant for Korea.
Japan had ruled over Korea since 1910. The Japanese seized control of the country after years of conflict and spent the next several decades attempting to eliminate Korean culture. The Korean language became illegal in public schools and universities; archival documents were burned; many of Korea's historic buildings were torn down. The Japanese even attempted to eliminate Korean family names. They did this by insisting that native Koreans change their last names to Japanese-sounding ones to receive items such as ration cards and mail deliveries. There were many acts of rebellion against the Japanese government, but a major turning point came when the United States (U.S.) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) captured Korea in 1945 and ousted the Japanese government.
After being liberated from Japanese rule, the country was split into two halves along the 38th Parallel—the North, occupied by the communist U.S.S.R., and the South, occupied by the democratic U.S., with assistance from the newly formed United Nations (UN). At the time, the UN consisted of fifty-one founding countries that shared a desire to help mediate international conflict, encourage diplomatic relations between countries, resolve economic and humanitarian issues, and promote equal rights. The UN held a presence in South Korea to help facilitate the transition from a Japanese government to a Korean one, which included assisting with democratic elections. This same offer was extended to the North, but it was not accepted.
The division of Korea was intended to be temporary. However, because communist and democratic ideals are at odds, the idea of uniting the country became increasingly difficult as the populace on each side began embracing the tenets of their respective overseers. The communist North believed in a government with absolute control over education, production, agriculture, and property, while the democratic South believed in a publicly elected government, private land ownership, and a free economy. The tension caused by these contradictory principles was not felt only in Korea. Relations between the once-allied U.S.S.R. and the U.S. had all but dissolved due to this political friction. This division would lead to what was deemed the Cold War—a conflict between the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. that involved no direct fighting—which lasted more than 40 years. With this ideological crevasse between its overseers, the 38th Parallel separating North and South Korea became more and more entrenched both literally and figuratively. Military clashes along the border between North and South Korea were a common occurrence, and it is estimated that approximately 10,000 North and South Korean soldiers died before the war was even declared.
On June 25, 1950, 75,000 North Korean soldiers - supported by the U.S.S.R. and China - crossed the border into South Korea. The U.S. viewed the invasion as an attempt to further spread the principles of communism, and they feared that if North Korea and its allies succeeded, the communists would take over the globe. By July 1950, American troops were on the ground fighting alongside South Korean soldiers.
Corporal James Kenneth Evans - SF800384
James Kenneth Evans was born on November 25, 1927, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Bertram Estey Evans and Sarah Eunice (née Gabriel).
Bertram was from Fredericton, New Brunswick. In 1904, he married Jessie Bustin, but the marriage did not last long. Less than ten years later, in 1911, the Canada Census lists Bertram as living in Toronto, Ontario, working as a salesman. What's interesting is that he was not listed as being widowed or divorced; he was simply "single". Exactly what happened to the marriage and to Jessie is unclear.
While in Ontario, Bertram worked as a salesman for the Marathon Tire Co. until 1916, when he signed up for the Canadian Expeditionary Force during World War I. On his attestation papers, Bertram's occupation is noted as "traveller," and his next of kin is a woman named Ona Ryan, who is named as Bertram's friend. The nature of their relationship is unclear, but further documentation shows that Bertram was sending a large portion of his military pay back to Ona in Toronto, perhaps suggesting that their relationship was a bit more than just friendly. Bertram served overseas in France until he suffered a gunshot wound to the right shoulder in October of 1918. He was discharged from military service in early 1919 after being deemed medically unfit.
By the late 1920's Bertram had made his way to Halifax. It was there that he met Sarah Eunice Gabriel, originally from Stephenville, Newfoundland. It's not known exactly when Bertram and Eunice met, but long enough that they had James in 1927 and adopted an infant daughter named Freda in 1930. Bertram and Eunice officially settled down and got married in 1931. What's interesting about this marriage document is that Bertram's name is listed as "Albert Bertram Evans" and, once again, he is listed as being a bachelor despite having been previously married.
James spent his formative years in downtown Halifax. Bertram supported the family by working as a bond salesman while Eunice took care of James, his sister, and the family home. However, in 1935, when James was just eight years old, Bertram became ill with peritonitis - a swelling of the abdomen - and passed away. Eunice was left to raise James and Freda on her own, but she wasn't alone for long. In 1938, she married Private Theodore Arthur Clarke, a hotel porter, who was more than 15 years her junior (assuming Eunice was born in 1899, as stated on her marriage certificate to Bertram). Her marriage certificate to Theodore states she was born in 1905. This union produced two half-sisters for James: Nancy Anita, who unfortunately died in infancy after contracting pneumonia, and Gloria.
James' mother was a Roman Catholic, and so he was raised in that tradition. He attended high school at St. Mary's College on Windsor Street—a sort of feeder school for St. Mary's University—but only completed grade nine. He had a casual interest in sports—hockey, baseball, and football—but did not take them seriously. He liked to read and dance.
James would have been 12 years old when the battles of World War II (WWII) began in Europe, and he was one of thousands of youths who yearned to assist in the war effort. Whether it was the spirit of wartime patriotism or the military histories of both his father and stepfather, James enrolled in the Royal Canadian Army Cadets (RCAC) in 1940. The RCAC began in the late 1800s as a way to provide basic military training to Canada's men. The initial reasoning for supporting and encouraging this training was to help guard the country against a potential American invasion. As time went on, the program turned away from training adult men and focused on teenagers who were not old enough to join militia groups or the army. The RCAC trained youths in military skills, including drills, army organization, weapon training, fieldcraft, map reading, signalling, and aircraft recognition (Stacey, pg. 141). During the war years, the Canadian Government provided additional funding and support to the RCAC to encourage more participants, whose ultimate goal was to serve their country overseas in Europe. James committed to it for four years until he was nearly seventeen, when he was deemed old enough to properly join the Army.
On June 9, 1944, James signed his attestation papers and joined the Princess Louise Fusiliers. In his paperwork, he was described as six feet tall and 128 pounds (underweight, as far as the Army was concerned); he had a medium complexion, brown hair and eyes, and a scar on his right hand. James was sent to training, and did so while also working a job at a local Halifax Gaiety Theatre as an usher and later as an assistant manager. After training, he was placed in the 36th (Reserve) Brigade, 2nd (Reserve) Battalion with the rank of Private. As luck would have it, this Brigade was stationed in Halifax. While stationed with the 36th Reserve, James trained hard, never knowing when he might be called. He even trained others working as a drill instructor.
What was luckier than this Reserve unit being stationed in Halifax is that it was never called into action. James avoided the horrors of WWII by serving his country from home. He was discharged from service in the fall of 1947, but not for long. The day after his service had ended, James re-enrolled in the Reserve Force.
Following the war, James lived a relatively ordinary life. He was in the Reserves. He had a girlfriend. He continued to work at the Gaiety Theatre until 1948, when he took a new position as a clerk with T. Eaton & Co. Although the Cold War was freezing political alliances and causing tension across the globe, James' day-to-day would have seemed very calm compared to the wartime hustle and bustle only years before. However, the invasion of South Korea in 1950 changed all that.
Heading Overseas
Shortly after the U.S. entered the Korean Conflict, the U.N. also became involved. Initially, the organization called on the North Korean government and its army to end their invasion and return to peace. When those words went unheeded, the U.N. Security Council passed a resolution that members should provide aid to South Korea to fight back against the invading North Korean force. As one of the founding members of the U.N., Canada answered their call for assistance. In early August 1950, Prime Minister Louis St-Laurent created a Special Force to serve under the U.N. in North Korea. Canada, however, did not officially declare war. Enrollment in the 25th was voluntary. By the end of August, approximately 8,000 people had enlisted, including James.
On August 17, 1950, James signed his attestation papers for the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade, agreeing to serve for 18 months in the Canadian Army. When asked why he wanted to join the Special Forces, James stated that he liked the Army life and the security it provided. Before the week was out, he was sent to the Petawawa Camp in Ontario, and by the end of September, he was promoted to Corporal. He was initially posted with the 2nd Royal Canadian Regiment (RCR), but was reassigned to the 3rd RCR in early 1951. In April 1951, James was called up as reinforcements for the Korean offensive. He was sent to the U.S. and then began his journey overseas.
His first stop was Japan. Like South Korea, Japan was a nation under U.S. occupation following the end of WWII, and their sea ports became of critical importance in the Korean War: "These ports were used as home bases of U.S. Navy vessels and MSTS ships because they already possessed various functions as a naval bases and were equipped with facilities necessary for the maintenance and repair of ships and for storage of fuel and ammunition... Yokohama Port and Kure Port had long ago developed as Japan's major ports and thus their potential capabilities as transport bases were tremendous" (Ishimaru, pg. 67). James was stationed at Kure Port, a city a little more than 20km from the infamous and decimated city of Hiroshima. James participated in training exercises in Kure Port until the autumn of 1951, when he was sent to mainland South Korea.
James was stationed near the Sami-ch'on River in a place referred to as the Nabu-ri Valley about 50km north of the South Korean capital of Seoul. He was taken on by the 2nd Battalion of the RCR to maintain the Jamestown Line and participate in Operation Pepperpot. Pepperpot was a raid on nearby Chinese forces designed not only to inflict damage on the Northern forces but also to gather information on their positions and troop layout. It would also be the furthest Canadian troops had gone into North Korean/Chinese territory since the beginning of the war, and would remain so through the rest of the conflict. On October 23, 1951, companies from the RCR, the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI), and the Royal 22nd Regiment (R22eR) were sent to capture strategic points known as Hill 156 and Hill 166:
At 3:30 in the morning, Maj. Williams and his "A" Company were up, and by 6 o'clock on their way through wire and mines laid by the 2nd Battalion... Within an hour, the RCR and R22eR were on the lower edges of Hill 166. By 8:30 the PPCLI were partway up Hill 156, but pinned down by Chinese machine-gun and mortar fire. ... By early afternoon, with nearly all the objectives reached and dismantled, except the very top of Hill 166, the Canadians began to withdraw. Initially, the pull-back was unnoticed by the Chinese, but the UN gunners began shelling Hill 156 to set up a smokescreen to cover the Canadian withdrawal. This action suddenly drew the attention of remaining Chinese units in the area. Suddenly, the combined friendly and enemy fire was raining down all around the withdrawing Canadian troops... eventually, the Canadian infantrymen made it back through the valley...
Schlesinger, pg 140-141
Overall, the mission was considered a success, but it was not without casualties. More than 20 Canadian soldiers were wounded, and five lost their lives: Private S. A. Ward (RCR), Private R. V. Arnott (PPCLI), Private D. F. Bradshaw (PPCLI), Sergeant Clarence J. Currie (PPCLI), and Corporal James Kenneth Evans.
While participating in Operation Pepperpot, James suffered a "missile" wound to his chest. It is not known if his injuries were a result of enemy or friendly fire. When his body was found, he was identified by an ID tag attached to his jacket; this was later confirmed by his fingerprints and an in-person identification of his remains by Sergeant Smith of the 2nd Battalion of the RCR. James was 23 years old when he died.
James' mother was informed of her son's death in a letter. A few months later, the office of Major-General W. H. S. Macklin sent Eunice another letter detailing the location of her son's grave:
Dear Mrs. Clarke:
Further to previous correspondence, a Report of Interment received from the Overseas Authorities in respect of your late son, Corporal James Kenneth Evans reveals that he was buried in the United Nations Military Cemetery, Tanggok, Korea, on October 27, 1951.
Cemetery location is described as Plot Number Allied 20, Row Number 6, Grave Number 1180.
James was buried in an officer's bedroll, and his resting place was marked with a simple wooden cross bearing his name, rank, and serial number. Eunice was sent photos of the place where her son was laid to rest. In November of 1951, Eunice sent a letter to the army, which was received by the Office of the Judge Advocate General, Estates Section. In the letter, Eunice asked about her son's death:
I would like to have the particulars as to the cause of death and information as to whather he was killed instantly or died from wounds, and the nature of the injuries that caused his death.
It is unknown if Eunice ever received a response.
Upon joining the RCR, James had made a will, making his mother the sole inheritor of his very modest estate. In February 1952, Eunice received personal items from James, including his watch, wallet, a ring, and a camera. She was also entitled to any funds in James' name. Between tax refunds, pension gratuities, and credits, she received approximately $645 (or around $7,500 today). Although these funds would certainly have helped financially support Eunice and her daughters, they were nothing compared to the value of her son's life.
The Finishing Lines
The Korean War lasted from June 1950 until July 1953. Over the three-year conflict, more than 26,000 Canadians served in the air, on the sea, and on the ground. 516 of them never saw their families again.
The United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Korea (UNMCK), where James was laid to rest, is the only U.N. memorial cemetery in the world. Located in Tanggok, a suburb of Busan, the land was owned by the South Korean government during the war but was donated to the U.N. in 1955. At the end of the war, the cemetery housed the graves of 11,000 fallen soldiers from the 21 countries that assisted the Republic of Korea in the conflict. Over time, many of the remains were returned to their home countries. Today, the site is home to 2,300 grave sites from 11 different countries.
Since the end of the war, the UNMCK has gone through many changes. Today, the wooden crosses have been replaced with longstanding plaques to honour the dead. In the middle of the cemetery stands the U.N. Forces Memorial, which was dedicated in 1978. It is white a stark white colour and features two doves as a symbol of peace. In 2006, the Wall of Remembrance was completed. It lists the names of all of those soldiers killed or missing on marble panels. The Wall surrounds a round pond that symbolizes the Universe, where the sky and the Wall come together with the spirits of those who have fallen and the minds of the spectators visiting the memorial. The Unknown Soldier's Pathway pays tribute to those who died but were never identified. Originally a simple concrete path, it was refurbished in 2008 to include water features and floral accents. On the east side of the cemetery is the U.N. Sculpture Park, filled with unique sculptures meant to symbolize unity and peace. The United Nations Peace Memorial Hall is an interpretive centre that tells the story of the Korean War: "This space enables us to ruminate on the meaning of peace and think about the future of coexistence." (Visit Busan). Every June, the Republic of Korea pays a floral tribute to the fallen soldiers at the UNMCK as part of their Memorial Day celebrations.
James' new marker stands amongst the memorials of the fallen. It is a long-standing reminder of his sacrifice and the loss his family and thousands of families suffered.
Library Sources
Ancestry, Library Edition
Additional Sources
14 Principles of Democracy, Liberties
Army Cadet History, 2347 Argyll Cadets
Canadian Participation in the Korean War, Part 1, Government of Canada
Canadian Virtual War Memorial, Corporal James Kenneth Evans, Government of Canada
Corporal James Kenneth Evans, Find a Grave
Evans, Corporal James Kenneth, Military Record, Library and Archives Canada
Finding the Interred at the UNMCK, Evans, J. K., United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Korea
Founding Member States, United Nations
Halifax Grid Numbers, Halifax Municipal Archives
Halifax Rifles on Citadel Hill, 1940, Nova Scotia Archives
Historic Calendar - 1951, Government of Canada
History, United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Korea
How Japan Took Control of Korea, History
How the Kim Dynasty Took Over North Korea, History
Inflation Calculator, Bank of Canada
Korea - Jamestown Line, Military History
Korean War, 1950-1953, Encyclopedia Britannica
Korean War, 1950-1953, Government of Canada
Political Cartoons in America, Ohio Memory
Private Bertram Estey Evans, Find a Grave
Saint Mary's College/High School, 1940, Saint Mary's University
St. Laurent and Kim Il-Sung, Legion Magazine
The Teenagers Celebrate, 1945, Nova Scotia Archives
The Tenets of Communism, Book Browse
Timeline Korean War, The Canadian Encyclopedia
United Nations, Encyclopedia Britannica
UN Memorial Cemetery in Korea, the land remembered by people all around the world, Visit Busan
UNMCK Facilities, United Nations Memorial Cemetery in Korea
Wall of Remembrance, Brampton, Ontario, Government of Canada
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